 |
| Background: |
Speculation over
the existence of a "southern land" was not
confirmed until the early 1820s when British and American
commercial operators and British and Russian national
expeditions began exploring the Peninsula region and areas
south of the Antarctic Circle. Not until 1838 was it
established that Antarctica was indeed a continent and not
just a group of islands. Various "firsts" were
achieved in the early 20th century, including: 1902, first
balloon flight (by British explorer Robert Falcon SCOTT);
1912, first to the South Pole (five Norwegian explorers
under Roald AMUNDSEN); 1928, first fixed-wing aircraft
flight (by Australian adventurer/explorer Sir Hubert
WILKINS); 1929, first flight over the South Pole (by
Americans Richard BYRD and Bernt BALCHEN); and 1935, first
transantarctic flight (American Lincoln ELLSWORTH).
Following World War II, there was an upsurge in scientific
research on the continent. A number of countries have set up
year-round research stations on Antarctica. Seven have made
territorial claims, but no other country recognizes these
claims. In order to form a legal framework for the
activities of nations on the continent, an Antarctic Treaty
was negotiated that neither denies nor gives recognition to
existing territorial claims; signed in 1959, it entered into
force in 1961. |
| Location: |
continent mostly
south of the Antarctic Circle |
| Geographic
coordinates: |
90 00 S, 0 00 E |
| Map
references: |
Antarctic Region |
| Area: |
total:
14 million sq km
land: 14 million sq km (280,000 sq km ice-free,
13.72 million sq km ice-covered) (est.)
note: fifth-largest continent, following Asia,
Africa, North America, and South America, but larger than
Australia and the subcontinent of Europe |
| Area
- comparative: |
slightly less
than 1.5 times the size of the US |
| Land
boundaries: |
0 km
note: see entry on International disputes |
| Maritime
claims: |
none; twenty of
27 Antarctic consultative nations have made no claims to
Antarctic territory (although Russia and the US have
reserved the right to do so) and do not recognize the claims
of the other nations; also see the Disputes - international
entry |
| Climate: |
severe low
temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and distance
from the ocean; East Antarctica is colder than West
Antarctica because of its higher elevation; Antarctic
Peninsula has the most moderate climate; higher temperatures
occur in January along the coast and average slightly below
freezing |
| Terrain: |
about 98% thick
continental ice sheet and 2% barren rock, with average
elevations between 2,000 and 4,000 meters; mountain ranges
up to 5,140 meters; ice-free coastal areas include parts of
southern Victoria Land, Wilkes Land, the Antarctic Peninsula
area, and parts of Ross Island on McMurdo Sound; glaciers
form ice shelves along about half of the coastline, and
floating ice shelves constitute 11% of the area of the
continent |
| Elevation
extremes: |
lowest point:
Bentley Subglacial Trench -2,540 m
highest point: Vinson Massif 5,140 m
note: the lowest known land point in Antarctica
is hidden in the Bentley Subglacial Trench; at its surface
is the deepest ice yet discovered and the world's lowest
elevation not under sea water |
| Natural
resources: |
iron ore,
chromium, copper, gold, nickel, platinum and other minerals,
and coal and hydrocarbons have been found in small
uncommercial quantities; none presently exploited; krill,
finfish, and crab have been taken by commercial fisheries |
| Land
use: |
arable land:
0%
permanent crops: 0%
permanent pastures: 0%
forests and woodland: 0%
other: 100% (ice 98%, barren rock 2%) |
| Irrigated
land: |
0 sq km (1993) |
| Natural
hazards: |
katabatic
(gravity-driven) winds blow coastward from the high
interior; frequent blizzards form near the foot of the
plateau; cyclonic storms form over the ocean and move
clockwise along the coast; volcanism on Deception Island and
isolated areas of West Antarctica; other seismic activity
rare and weak; large icebergs may calve from ice shelf |
| Environment
- current issues: |
in 1998, NASA
satellite data showed that the antarctic ozone hole was the
largest on record, covering 27 million square kilometers;
researchers in 1997 found that increased ultraviolet light
coming through the hole damages the DNA of icefish, an
antarctic fish lacking hemoglobin; ozone depletion earlier
was shown to harm one-celled antarctic marine plants |
| Geography
- note: |
the coldest,
windiest, highest (on average), and driest continent; during
summer, more solar radiation reaches the surface at the
South Pole than is received at the Equator in an equivalent
period; mostly uninhabitable |
| Population: |
no indigenous
inhabitants, but there are seasonally staffed research
stations
note: approximately 29 nations, all signatory
to the Antarctic Treaty, send personnel to perform seasonal
(summer) and year-round research on the continent and in its
surrounding oceans; the population of persons doing and
supporting science on the continent and its nearby islands
south of 60 degrees south latitude (the region covered by
the Antarctic Treaty) varies from approximately 4,000 in
summer to 1,000 in winter; in addition, approximately 1,000
personnel including ship's crew and scientists doing onboard
research are present in the waters of the treaty region;
Summer (January) population - 3,687 total; Argentina 302,
Australia 201, Belgium 13, Brazil 80, Bulgaria 16, Chile
352, China 70, Finland 11, France 100, Germany 51, India 60,
Italy 106, Japan 136, South Korea 14, Netherlands 10, NZ 60,
Norway 40, Peru 28, Poland 70, Russia 254, South Africa 80,
Spain 43, Sweden 20, UK 192, US 1,378 (1998-99); Winter
(July) population - 964 total; Argentina 165, Australia 75,
Brazil 12, Chile 129, China 33, France 33, Germany 9, India
25, Japan 40, South Korea 14, NZ 10, Poland 20, Russia 102,
South Africa 10, UK 39, US 248 (1998-99); year-round
stations - 42 total; Argentina 6, Australia 4, Brazil 1,
Chile 4, China 2, Finland 1, France 1, Germany 1, India 1,
Italy 1, Japan 1, South Korea 1, NZ 1, Norway 1, Poland 1,
Russia 6, South Africa 1, Spain 1, Ukraine 1, UK 2, US 3,
Uruguay 1 (1998-99); Summer-only stations - 32 total;
Argentina 3, Australia 4, Bulgaria 1, Chile 7, Germany 1,
India 1, Japan 3, NZ 1, Peru 1, Russia 3, Sweden 2, UK 5
(1998-99); in addition, during the austral summer some
nations have numerous occupied locations such as tent camps,
summer-long temporary facilities, and mobile traverses in
support of research (July 2001 est.) |
| Country
name: |
conventional
long form: none
conventional short form: Antarctica |
| Government
type: |
Antarctic Treaty
Summary - the Antarctic Treaty, signed on 1 December 1959
and entered into force on 23 June 1961, establishes the
legal framework for the management of Antarctica. The 23rd
Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting was held in Peru in
May 1999. At the end of 2000, there were 44 treaty member
nations: 27 consultative and 17 non-consultative.
Consultative (voting) members include the seven nations that
claim portions of Antarctica as national territory (some
claims overlap) and 20 nonclaimant nations. The US and
Russia have reserved the right to make claims. The US does
not recognize the claims of others. Antarctica is
administered through meetings of the consultative member
nations. Decisions from these meetings are carried out by
these member nations (within their areas) in accordance with
their own national laws. The year in parentheses indicates
when an acceding nation was voted to full consultative
(voting) status, while no date indicates the country was an
original 1959 treaty signatory. Claimant nations are -
Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway,
and the UK. Nonclaimant consultative nations are - Belgium,
Brazil (1983), Bulgaria (1998) China (1985), Ecuador (1990),
Finland (1989), Germany (1981), India (1983), Italy (1987),
Japan, South Korea (1989), Netherlands (1990), Peru (1989),
Poland (1977), Russia, South Africa, Spain (1988), Sweden
(1988), Uruguay (1985), and the US. Non-consultative
(nonvoting) members, with year of accession in parentheses,
are - Austria (1987), Canada (1988), Colombia (1989), Cuba
(1984), Czech Republic (1993), Denmark (1965), Greece
(1987), Guatemala (1991), Hungary (1984), North Korea
(1987), Papua New Guinea (1981), Romania (1971), Slovakia
(1993), Switzerland (1990), Turkey (1995), Ukraine (1992),
and Venezuela (1999). Article 1 - area to be used for
peaceful purposes only; military activity, such as weapons
testing, is prohibited, but military personnel and equipment
may be used for scientific research or any other peaceful
purpose; Article 2 - freedom of scientific investigation and
cooperation shall continue; Article 3 - free exchange of
information and personnel, cooperation with the UN and other
international agencies; Article 4 - does not recognize,
dispute, or establish territorial claims and no new claims
shall be asserted while the treaty is in force; Article 5 -
prohibits nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive
wastes; Article 6 - includes under the treaty all land and
ice shelves south of 60 degrees 00 minutes south and
reserves high seas rights; Article 7 - treaty-state
observers have free access, including aerial observation, to
any area and may inspect all stations, installations, and
equipment; advance notice of all expeditions and of the
introduction of military personnel must be given; Article 8
- allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by
their own states; Article 9 - frequent consultative meetings
take place among member nations; Article 10 - treaty states
will discourage activities by any country in Antarctica that
are contrary to the treaty; Article 11 - disputes to be
settled peacefully by the parties concerned or, ultimately,
by the ICJ; Articles 12, 13, 14 - deal with upholding,
interpreting, and amending the treaty among involved
nations. Other agreements - some 200 recommendations adopted
at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments
include - Agreed Measures for Fauna and Flora (1964) which
were later incorporated into the Environmental Protocol;
Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972);
Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living
Resources (1980); a mineral resources agreement was signed
in 1988 but remains unratified; the Protocol on
Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was signed
4 October 1991 and entered into force 14 January 1998; this
agreement provides for the protection of the Antarctic
environment through five specific annexes: 1) marine
pollution, 2) fauna and flora, 3) environmental impact
assessments, 4) waste management, and 5) protected area
management; it prohibits all activities relating to mineral
resources except scientific research. |
| Legal
system: |
Antarctica is
administered through meetings of the consultative member
nations. Decisions from these meetings are carried out by
these member nations (within their areas) in accordance with
their own national laws. US law, including certain criminal
offenses by or against US nationals, such as murder, may
apply extra-territorially. Some US laws directly apply to
Antarctica. For example, the Antarctic Conservation Act, 16
U.S.C. section 2401 et seq., provides civil and criminal
penalties for the following activities, unless authorized by
regulation of statute: the taking of native mammals or
birds; the introduction of nonindigenous plants and animals;
entry into specially protected areas; the discharge or
disposal of pollutants; and the importation into the US of
certain items from Antarctica. Violation of the Antarctic
Conservation Act carries penalties of up to $10,000 in fines
and one year in prison. The National Science Foundation and
Department of Justice share enforcement responsibilities.
Public Law 95-541, the US Antarctic Conservation Act of
1978, as amended in 1996, requires expeditions from the US
to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the Office of Oceans
and Polar Affairs, Room 5801, Department of State,
Washington, DC 20520, which reports such plans to other
nations as required by the Antarctic Treaty. For more
information, contact Permit Office, Office of Polar
Programs, National Science Foundation, Arlington, Virginia
22230; telephone: (703) 292-8030, or see their website at
www.nsf.gov. |
| Economy
- overview: |
Fishing off the
coast and tourism, both based abroad, account for the
limited economic activity. Antarctic fisheries in 1998-99 (1
July-30 June) reported landing 119,898 metric tons.
Unregulated fishing landed five to six times more than the
regulated fishery, and allegedly illegal fishing in
antarctic waters in 1998 resulted in the seizure (by France
and Australia) of at least eight fishing ships. Companies
interested in commercial fishing activities in Antarctica
have put forward proposals. The Convention on the
Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources determines
the recommended catch limits for marine species. A total of
13,193 tourists visited in the 1999-2000 summer, up from the
10,013 who visited the previous year. Nearly all of them
were passengers on 24 commercial (nongovernmental) ships and
several yachts that made 143 trips during the summer. Most
tourist trips lasted approximately two weeks. |
| Telephones
- main lines in use: |
0
note: information for US bases only (2001) |
| Telephones
- mobile cellular: |
NA |
| Telephone
system: |
general
assessment: NA
domestic: NA
international: NA |
| Radio
broadcast stations: |
AM NA, FM 2,
shortwave 1
note: information for US bases only (1998) |
| Television
broadcast stations: |
1 (the US Navy
Antarctic Support Group operates a cable system with six
channels for the American Forces Antarctic Network-McMurdo)
note: information for US bases only (2000) |
| Televisions: |
several hundred
at McMurdo Sound
note: information for US bases only (2001) |
| Internet
country code: |
.aq |
| Internet
Service Providers (ISPs): |
NA |
| Ports
and harbors: |
there are no
developed ports and harbors in Antarctica; most coastal
stations have offshore anchorages, and supplies are
transferred from ship to shore by small boats, barges, and
helicopters; a few stations have a basic wharf facility US
coastal stations include McMurdo (77 51 S, 166 40 E), Palmer
(64 43 S, 64 03 W); government use only except by permit
(see Permit Office under "Legal System"); offshore
anchorage is sparse and intermittent |
| Airports: |
19
note: 27 stations, operated by 16 national
governments party to the Antarctic Treaty, have aircraft
landing facilities for either helicopters and/or fixed-wing
aircraft; commercial enterprises operate two additional
aircraft landing facilities; helicopter pads are available
at 27 stations; runways at 15 locations are gravel, sea-ice,
blue-ice, or compacted snow suitable for landing wheeled,
fixed-wing aircraft; of these, 1 is greater than 3 km in
length, 6 are between 2 km and 3 km in length, 3 are between
1 km and 2 km in length, 3 are less than 1 km in length, and
2 are of unknown length; snow surface skiways, limited to
use by ski-equipped, fixed-wing aircraft, are available at
another 15 locations; of these, 4 are greater than 3 km in
length, 3 are between 2 km and 3 km in length, 2 are between
1 km and 2 km in length, 2 are less than 1 km in length, and
4 are of unknown length; aircraft landing facilities
generally subject to severe restrictions and limitations
resulting from extreme seasonal and geographic conditions;
aircraft landing facilities do not meet ICAO standards;
advance approval from the respective governmental or
nongovernmental operating organization required for landing
(2001 est.) |
| Airports
- with unpaved runways: |
total:
19
over 3,047 m: 6
2,438 to 3,047 m: 3
1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
914 to 1,523 m: 4
under 914 m: 5 (2000 est.) |
| Heliports: |
27 stations have
helicopter landing facilities (helipads) (2001 est.) |
| Military
- note: |
the Antarctic
Treaty prohibits any measures of a military nature, such as
the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the
carrying out of military maneuvers, or the testing of any
type of weapon; it permits the use of military personnel or
equipment for scientific research or for any other peaceful
purposes |
| Disputes
- international: |
Antarctic Treaty
freezes claims (see Antarctic Treaty Summary in Government
type entry); sections (some overlapping) claimed by
Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway,
and UK; the US and most other nations do not recognize the
territorial claims of other nations and have made no claims
themselves (the US and Russia reserve the right to do so);
no claims have been made in the sector between 90 degrees
west and 150 degrees west |
|
